Low-cost Microfluidic Testbed for Molecular Communications with Integrated Hydrodynamic Gating and Screen-printed Sensors

Abstract

Molecular Communications (MC), transferring information via chemical signals, holds promise for transformative healthcare applications within the Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT) framework. Despite promising advances toward practical MC systems, progress has been constrained by experimental testbeds that are costly, difficult to customize, and require labor-intensive fabrication. Here, we address these challenges by introducing a low-cost ( ∼$1 per unit), rapidly fabricated (<1 hour), and highly customizable microfluidic testbed that integrates a cross-shaped, hydrodynamic gating-based microfluidic transmitter, and a screen-printed potentiometric sensor-based receiver. This platform enables precise spatiotemporal control over chemical signals and supports reconfigurable channel architectures along with on-demand sensor functionalization. As a proof of concept, we demonstrate a pH-based MC system combining a polyaniline (PANI)-functionalized screen printed sensor for real-time pH signal detection with a programmable hydrodynamic gating architecture, patterned in a double-sided adhesive tape, as the transmitter. By dynamically mixing phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) with an acidic solution (pH 3), the testbed reliably generates pH-encoded pulses. Experimental results confirm robust control over pulse amplitude and pulse width, enabling the simulation of end-to-end MC scenarios with 4-ary concentration shift keying (CSK) modulation. By combining affordability and rapid prototyping without compromising customizability, this platform is poised to accelerate the translation of MC concepts into practical IoBNT applications. © 2025 Elsevier B.V., All rights reserved.