Soft power in practice: a three-level analysis of Turkey’s higher education internationalization

Abstract

This study examines Turkey’s higher education internationalization as education diplomacy and soft power through a three-level analysis of policymakers, institutions, and international students. Using mixed-methods, it combines nationwide survey data with semi-structured interviews conducted between 2022 and 2024. Findings show, despite expansion in international student mobility and institutional outreach, gaps persist between policy ambitions and implementation. These gaps reflect principal-agent misalignments, street-level discretion, and weak policy feedback. The study conceptualizes education diplomacy as a multi-level governance field, especially showing how language instruction, institutional support, and alumni engagement shape the conversion of student mobility into sustainable soft power and transnational influence.