Microdroplet-Based Communications With Frequency Shift Keying Modulation

Abstract

Droplet-based communications has been investigated as a more robust alternative to diffusion-based molecular communications (MC), yet most existing demonstrations employ large 'plug-like' droplets or simple T-junction designs for droplet generation, restricting modulation strategies and achievable data rates. Here, we report a microfluidic communication system that encodes information via the generation rate of sub-100 μm water-in-oil microdroplets using a microfabricated flow focusing architecture. By precisely tuning the flow rate of the dispersed-phase (water) via a pressure-regulated flow controller, we implement frequency shift keying modulation with four symbols (4-FSK). A high-speed optical detection and video processing setup serves as the receiver, tracking system response in the microfluidic channel across different symbol durations (20 s and 12 s) and quantifying error performance. Despite the miniaturized device and channel architecture, our experiments demonstrate programmable and reliable data transmission with minimal symbol errors. Beyond water-in-oil systems, the same encoding principles can be extended to other compartmentalized carriers (e.g., giant unilamellar vesicles, polymersomes) that can also be synthesized via flow focusing techniques, paving the way for biocompatible, robust, and high-capacity communication in intrabody networks and the emerging Internet of Bio-Nano Things. © 2025 Elsevier B.V., All rights reserved.